How are water points established?
Who provides land? Who finances construction or rehabilitation?
Who owns it, who controls it, who manages it, and who benefits from it?
Xudur and Wanlaweyn Districts
Findings from a qualitative case study of displacement-affected settlements, exploring how ownership, management, financing, commercialisation and local power relations shape water access.
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Introduction, objective, conceptual framework and methodology
Introduction. Why this study. Objective. Conceptual framework. Methodology.
Why look beyond water infrastructure?
In Xudur and Wanlaweyn, water access is closely connected to where water sources are located, who owns the land and infrastructure, who finances and manages water systems, and the arrangements through which communities access and pay for water. These arrangements are particularly important in displacement-affected settlements, where households often live on land owned by others and depend on water sources over which they have limited ownership or control.
The growing commercialisation of safer drinking water adds another dimension. Boreholes, pipelines, vendors and transport networks increasingly connect communities to safer water, but they also make access more dependent on household purchasing power. During prolonged dry periods, when shallow wells and seasonal sources decline, dependence on commercially supplied water increases further.
Understanding water access therefore requires looking beyond infrastructure to the tenure, governance, financing and power relations surrounding water systems.
Water access is not determined by infrastructure alone. It is also shaped by who owns the land, who controls and manages water infrastructure, how services are financed, and who can afford to access the water available.
Most water programmes ask where the infrastructure should go. The assessment started one question earlier, and found five more layers underneath it.
Infrastructure
What water sources exist and where are they located?
The presence, type, condition and location of infrastructure determine what type of water is available.
Land
Who owns the land where the water source is located?
Land ownership can influence authority and how communal access is negotiated.
Ownership and control
Who owns the infrastructure and controls its operation?
Land ownership, infrastructure ownership and operational control do not always sit with the same actor.
Management
Who makes decisions about access, maintenance and distribution?
Systems are managed by landowners, private operators or companies, community committees and, in some cases, with continuing NGO influence.
Financing and economic value
How is the infrastructure financed, and what is the water worth?
CAPEX, OPEX and commercial value influence who can finance, operate and maintain infrastructure and how management arrangements evolve.
Social and power relations
Who is close enough to the decision to shape it?
Clan dynamics and familial relationships with landowners, operators, community leaders and influential actors can shape participation, influence and access, particularly during scarcity.
Shallow wells produce less water or dry up
Berkads and seasonal catchments become depleted
Greater dependence on boreholes and vendors
Demand and transport costs increase
Affordability becomes a greater barrier
What did the study seek to understand?
Rather than approaching water access simply as a question of infrastructure availability, the assessment explores how access is shaped by land ownership, management arrangements, local power relations and broader socio-economic conditions.
To examine how land ownership and water tenure arrangements shape the ownership, management, use, allocation, pricing and governance of water resources in Xudur and Wanlaweyn Districts.
Understanding water tenure
Water tenure goes beyond legal ownership of water or the physical provision of infrastructure. It helps explain who can access water, under what conditions, for what purposes and at what cost, as well as who controls infrastructure, who benefits economically and who participates in decisions.
Water tenure refers to the systems through which rights, responsibilities, access and control over water resources are organised, negotiated and enforced.
Private investment
NGO rehabilitation
Private or donated land
Community management roles
Informal, customary or commercial access
Water tenure arrangements are not necessarily fixed. They can evolve over time as investment, infrastructure functionality, operational costs, demand and the economic value of water change.
A qualitative, sequential assessment
The study adopted a qualitative research approach to understand how water is accessed, negotiated and managed across different water sources and displacement-affected settlements in Xudur and Wanlaweyn.
Rapid contextual mapping
Mapped water sources, access systems and settlement dynamics and informed site selection.
Qualitative interviews and field observation
Explored ownership, access, pricing, operation and maintenance, functionality, management practices and everyday challenges.
Mapping 10 water points and their tenure
Deepened understanding of ownership, tenure systems, access rules, management and historical factors.
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Findings
Overview. Water sources. Ownership and management. Access and pricing. Challenges. Political economy. Financial management. Local government.
Water access is shaped by much more than infrastructure
Across the assessed settlements, access to safe and reliable water reflects the interaction of environmental conditions, settlement location, infrastructure, seasonality, household purchasing power, land ownership and the arrangements governing individual water points.
Water infrastructure may be physically present, but reliable and equitable access depends on how the system is owned, financed, managed and governed.
Communities rely on multiple water sources throughout the year
The choice of water source depends on water quality, affordability, distance, seasonality and intended use, with drinking water often obtained from different sources than water used for washing and other domestic purposes.
Shallow wells
Main water source within many settlements. Usually saline or contaminated and collected manually using buckets and ropes. Mostly privately owned but commonly accessed through informal communal arrangements. Some have been rehabilitated with hand pumps by NGOs.
Boreholes
Main source of safer drinking water. Water is distributed through pipelines, communal collection points, vendors and donkey carts. Most operate under private or commercial management, although some were established with donor support. Access is often constrained by affordability and transport costs.
Rainwater catchments
Seasonal water sources that capture rainwater. Important during wet seasons but unreliable during prolonged dry periods due to evaporation, sedimentation and declining water quality.
Vendor-supplied water
Vendors transport water from boreholes and higher-quality wells to settlements. Essential for communities without nearby safe water sources, but prices often increase during droughts, making access difficult for poorer households and displaced people.
Water trucking
Temporary emergency response during droughts or water shortages. Mainly targets displacement-affected communities but depends on humanitarian funding and is not a sustainable long-term solution.
Households rarely depend on one water source. They shift between sources depending on water quality, affordability, distance, season and infrastructure functionality.
Five broad tenure arrangements operate across assessed water points
The assessment identified five broad ownership and management arrangements operating across the assessed water points. They are not necessarily fixed, and can evolve over time as investment, infrastructure functionality, operational costs, demand and the economic value of water change.
Private ownership with communal accessSeasonal and customary systemsNGO-supported communal systemsCommunal infrastructure privately operatedPrivate ownership with commercial operation
Ownership, management and access arrangements vary considerably across water points. Different arrangements often coexist within the same district and sometimes within the same water supply system.
Physical availability does not necessarily mean households can access water
Distance and affordability are major barriers. Settlements without reliable nearby water sources depend heavily on vendors and transporters, while prices rise during drought, shortages and increases in fuel and transport costs.
| Water source | Price per 20-litre jerrycan |
|---|---|
| Non-saline shallow wells | 2,000 |
| Boreholes, direct collection | 5,000 to 7,000 |
| Vendor-supplied water | 5,000 to 8,000 |
- Reduce overall water consumption
- Prioritise drinking and cooking over hygiene and cleaning
- Share purchased water between households
- Borrow or negotiate delayed payment
- Shift to lower-quality sources
- Travel farther for cheaper water
Access to safer water is increasingly influenced by both household purchasing power and social relationships.
Emerging challenges communities face in managing water systems
Challenges that affect water availability, infrastructure performance and the long-term sustainability of water systems.
Water tenure and the political economy of water access
As settlements expand and demand for water increases, ownership, investment, governance and commercial interests increasingly influence who controls water, who benefits and who can afford access.
Water tenure arrangements can be dynamic. As settlements grow and infrastructure becomes more valuable, ownership, management and access arrangements evolve, making long-term water security dependent not only on infrastructure investment but also on governance, financing and equitable access arrangements.
Financial management of water points
Water systems rely on different financing mechanisms. While routine operating costs are largely financed locally, major infrastructure investments continue to depend on external support.
Existing financing arrangements generally sustain day-to-day operation of water systems but remain insufficient to finance major infrastructure replacement and long-term system expansion. Consequently, many water points continue to depend on periodic humanitarian investment for their long-term sustainability.
The evolving but limited role of local government in water management
Water governance across Xudur and Wanlaweyn is currently shaped primarily by communities, NGOs, private operators and customary practices. Local government plays important roles in site identification and negotiations, but its role in regulating, coordinating and overseeing increasingly complex and commercialised systems remains limited.
As communities and private operators play an increasingly important role in delivering water services, the role of government is evolving from direct service provision towards regulation, coordination, oversight and stewardship of water resources. However, these governance functions remain underdeveloped, creating important gaps in accountability, equity and the long-term sustainability of water services.
Implications and what can be done
Implications. What can be done. Future investment considerations.
Implications for improving water access in displacement-affected communities
The findings suggest that improving water access in displacement-affected settlements requires greater attention to the wider social, economic, governance and institutional factors that influence who can access water, who benefits from water investments and how water services are sustained over time.
Future water investments have implications that extend well beyond improving water supply. Decisions made during planning, implementation and handover can shape patterns of access, control, accountability and sustainability long after construction is complete. Failing to consider these interactions may unintentionally reinforce existing inequalities.
What can be done to strengthen water tenure and improve water access?
Different water systems require different governance and management models.
A
Strengthen water tenure and governance
Future water investments should give equal attention to governance as to infrastructure.
- Inform water infrastructure investments not only by technical and hydrogeological assessments but also by water tenure and political economy analysis
- Agree operation, maintenance, financing and accountability arrangements before project completion
- Strengthen government oversight, licensing and accountability
- Promote inclusive participation and reduce risks of elite capture through transparent governance arrangements
B
Build on existing management systems
Different water systems require different governance and management models.
- Match infrastructure to local technical and financial capacity
- Build on existing community management where appropriate
- Develop community and private partnership models for larger commercial systems
- Strengthen accountability, affordability and transparency within existing private water markets
- Expand communal storage, pipelines and water collection points
Communities should shape governance arrangements.
Future investments should support governance arrangements that communities are willing and able to sustain, rather than applying predetermined management models.
Water point profiles
Xudur. Wanlaweyn. Cross-case lessons.
Selected water point profiles
Ownership, access, management and the pressure each system is currently under.
Four profiles, spanning a privately owned communal well, a communal tank under private operation, a commercial borehole system and a seasonal catchment.
What the water point profiles show
The profiles confirm that water tenure is dynamic. Land ownership, investment, operational capacity and local agreements together shape who controls infrastructure and who can access water over time.